Author: Rebecca OConnell

Rhetoric is often defined as “the art of language.” That might sound like a bit of a cliché (which it is), but it’s actually quite a nice way of saying that rhetorical devices and figures of speech can transform an ordinary piece of writing or an everyday conversation into something much more memorable, evocative, and enjoyable. Hundreds of different rhetorical techniques and turns of phrase have been identified and described over the centuries—of which the 21 listed here are only a fraction—but they’re all just as effective and just as useful when employed successfully.

1. ADYNATON

You’ll no doubt have heard of hyperbole, in which an over-exaggeration is used for rhetorical effect, like, “he’s as old as the hills,” “we died laughing,” or “hyperbole is the best thing ever.” But adynaton is a particular form of hyperbole in which an exaggeration is taken to a ridiculous and literally impossible extreme, like “when pigs fly!” or “when Hell freezes over!”

2. ANACOLUTHON

Often used in literature to create a stream-of-consciousness style in which a character’s thoughts flit from one idea to the next, anacoluthon describes a sudden and unexpected break in a sentence that leads to it being concluded in a different way than might have been expected. Although it can sometimes be due to nothing more than a speaker losing their train of thought, in practice anacoluthon can also be OH MY GOD I’VE LEFT THE GAS ON.

3. ANADIPLOSIS

Anadiplosis is an ingenious and memorable rhetorical device in which a repeated word or phrase is used both at the end of one sentence or clause and at the beginning of the next. As with practically all rhetorical devices, William Shakespeare liked using it (“She being none of your flesh and blood, your flesh and blood has not offended the king”), but you can thank George Lucas for what is now probably the best-known example: “Fear leads to anger. Anger leads to hate. Hate leads to suffering.”

4. ANTHYPOPHORA

You know when you pose a question for dramatic effect and then immediately answer it yourself? That’s anthypophora.

5. ANTIMERIA

If you’ve ever friended or texted someone, emailed or DMed something, tabled a meeting or motorwayed your way across country, then you’ll be familiar with antimeria, a rhetorical device in which an existing word is used as if it were a different part of speech. More often than not this involves using a noun as if it were a verb, a semantic process better known as “verbing” (which is actually a perfect example of itself). Slang (and modern English in general, for that matter) loves antimeria, but it is Shakespeare who remains the undisputed master of it. Cake, drug, kitchen, squabble, ghost, blanket, graze, elbow, and crank were all only ever used as nouns before he got hold of them.

6. ANTIPROSOPOPOEIA

Prosopopoeia is just a more formal name for personification, in which inanimate objects are either described in human terms or given human characteristics. The opposite of that is antiprosopopoeia, a figure of speech in which a person is compared to an inanimate object. That might sound odd, but it’s actually a very effective form of metaphor able to confer a great deal of detail or information in a clever and often witty way—think about what it means to call someone a doormat, a tank, a firecracker, a mattress, or a garbage disposal and you’ll see precisely how effective it can be.

7. ANTONOMASIA

The Bard. The Iron Lady. The King. Ol’ Blue Eyes. When you substitute a proper name for an epithet or a nickname, that’s antonomasia.

8. APOSIOPESIS

In Act 2 of King Lear, the eponymous king rages against two of his daughters in a disjointed speech that ends with the famous lines, “I will have such revenges on you both that all the world shall—I will do such things—what they are yet, I know not, but they shall be the terrors of the earth!” The point at which Lear’s threat of revenge trails off, restarts, and trails off again is a perfect example of aposiopesis, a rhetorical ploy in which an idea is left unsaid or a sentence is left incomplete purely for emphatic effect. Why I oughta…

9. ASTERISMOS

Right. Okay. Here goes. Asterismos is the use of a seemingly unnecessary word or phrase to introduce what you’re about to say. Semantically it’s fairly pointless to say something like “listen!” before you start talking to someone, because they are (or at least should be) already listening. Rhetorically, however, asterismos is a seriously clever way of subconsciously drawing attention to what you’re about to say.

10. ASYNDETON

“We got there, the weather was bad, we didn’t stay long, we got back in the car, we came home, end of story.” When you deliberately miss out the conjunctions between successive clauses, you’re left with a choppy and abrupt series of phrases that energetically push things forward, an effect properly known as asyndeton. The opposite is called polysyndeton, when you add more conjunctions to a phrase or clause than are strictly necessary, often with the effect of intentionally dragging it out: “We ate and drank and talked and laughed and talked and laughed and ate some more.”

11. CHIASMUS

Apart from the fact that it’s part of a great speech, one of the reasons why John F. Kennedy’s famous “ask not what your country can do for you, ask what you can do for your country” line is so striking is that is a fine example of chiasmus, a clever rhetorical formation in which the order of a pair of words or phrases in one clause (your country, you) is inverted in the next (you, your country). This gives a rhythmic and instantly memorable criss-cross pattern, AB-BA, which appropriately enough takes its name from the X-shaped Greek letter chi.

12. CONGERY

Congery is a form of tautology, the rhetorical use of repetition. It refers to a writer or speaker using a number of different and successive words or phrases that all effectively mean the same thing, purely to emphasise the point. That’s it. That’s all. Done. Finished. Finito.

13. DIALOGISMUS

In a dialogismus, a speaker either imagines what someone or something else might be thinking (“I bet that guy’s thinking, ‘what am I doing here?’”), or else paraphrases someone’s earlier words (“‘Don’t worry!’ she told me. ‘Everything will be fine!’”). In either case, the speaker ends up talking not as themselves just for rhetorical effect.

14. DYSPHEMISM

If a euphemism is a nicer turn of phrase used in place of a more offensive or embarrassing one (like “call of nature” or “bought the farm”), then a dysphemism is an offensive or detrimental phrase deliberately used in place of a nicer one. This applies to everything from using an insult instead of someone’s name, to phrases like frankenfood and junk food that try to influence what we should think of genetically modified crops and take-out restaurants with just a few choice words.

15. EUTREPISMUS

First, we need to explain what this is. Second, we need to show how it works. And third, we need to explain what it achieves. Eutrepismus is the numbering or ordering of a series of phrases that are all under consideration, and it’s used to structure arguments and speeches more clearly, making them easier for an audience to take in and follow your train of thought.

16. EXPEDITIO

An expeditio is that instantly recognisable figure of speech in which you list a number of alternatives, and then proceed to eliminate all but one of them. “We can go for Italian, Mexican, or Chinese. But I had Chinese last night and you hate garlic, so it’s going to have to be Mexican.”

17. HYPOCATASTASIS

When you say that something is like something else (“as busy as a bee”), that’s a simile. When you say that something actually is something else (“a heart of stone”) that’s a metaphor. But when you just go all out and label something as something that it actually isn’t (“You chicken!”), that’s a hypocatastasis.

18. PLEONASM

When you use more words than are in actual fact absolutely really strictly necessary in order to communicate and make your point effectively and efficiently, that’s a pleonasm. It needn’t be as clumsy and as long-winded as that, of course, and more often than not the term pleonasm is used to apply to what is otherwise called “semantic redundancy,” in which extra qualifying words are used to force a point home—like “empty space,” “boiling hot,” or “totally unique.”

19. SYNECDOCHE

A synecdoche is a figure of speech in which a part or component of something is used to represent that whole—like calling a car your “wheels,” the staff of a company the “hands,” or the film industry as a whole “Hollywood.”

20. TMESIS

Tmesis is the proper name for that fan-bloody-tastic technique of splitting a word in half by inserting another word inside it. More often than not, the word being inserted in the other is a swearword (you can provide your own examples for that), but it needn’t always be—tmesis can be used any-old-how you like.

21. ZEUGMA

There are several different forms and definitions of precisely what a zeugma is, but in basic terms it describes a figure of speech in which one word (usually, but not always, a verb) governs or is directly related to two or more other words in the same sentence. So you can run out of time, and out of the room. You can have a go, and a laugh. And, to paraphrase Charles Dickens, you can go home in floods of tears and a sedan-chair.

Whether you’re a single young professional or just starting a family, conserving funds for the future is always going to be your highest priority. One of the best ways to free up income is to make sure you’re in an area where the cost of living is reasonable. To help you avoid budget-busting relocations, we’ve rounded up some of the most affordable cities in the country. Check out 11 areas where housing, living expenses, and entertainment will be kind to your bank account.

1. BUFFALO, NEW YORK

Buffalo offers low median housing costs without succumbing to some of the cultural deprivations common in “affordable” cities. Buffalo has major sports teams, a large map of museums and attractions, and a geography that means you can find a place to call home without having to compromise with a long commute: Professionals tend to drive an average of just 20 minutes to their job sites. For families with children, the Buffalo school districts have been cited as being among some of the best in the country.

2. KANSAS CITY, MISSOURI

Inexpensive rental properties averaging $850 a month: check. Low-cost food and entertainment options: check. Mortgage amounts that would take up only a fraction of your monthly income: check. Despite being the hub for several federal government jobs, Kansas City has kept its cost of living at reasonable levels for decades. Gamers might also get a kick out of the city’s rise of arcade bars, which mix retro amusements with refreshments.

3. DAYTON, OHIO

Expect to pay just over $10 for a T-bone steak and roughly $70,000 for a quality home in Dayton, which frequently makes appearances in several best cost-of-living reports. Residents are always close to major highway crossings and a variety of diversions, including several fine arts programs. Small business owners can also get a boost from the city’s aggressive economic development resources. And if health care is a priority, Dayton’s hospitals tend to be on the forefront of burgeoning diagnostic and treatment advances.

4. OMAHA, NEBRASKA

Omaha has an impressive balance sheet: Residents tend to make more and pay out less than national averages. And if you’re looking to mingle with a younger crowd, the city has an attractive statistic—roughly a third of its residents are 24 years old or younger. Job prospects for white collar workers are also bright: With five of the largest corporations in the country within city limits, opportunities are always within driving distance.

5. BIRMINGHAM, ALABAMA

Known as the Magic City, Birmingham boasts a low cost of living and moderate temperatures; foodies are unlikely to tire of the city’s 500-plus restaurants. The area also has a wide cross-section of housing, from a burgeoning loft community to quiet, family-friendly neighborhoods. The city’s natural and architectural summits provide some of the most spectacular views you’ll find in any metropolis.

6. LOUISVILLE, KENTUCKY

Anyone looking to save as much as they can will appreciate Louisville’s reduced food and health care costs, which can offer double-digit decreases from the national average. The same holds true for their utilities, which is an often-overlooked (and money-eating) expense for anyone looking to spare funds. For job seekers, Louisville has been able to resist economic downturns and keep employment high.

7. MEMPHIS, TENNESSEE

Great food and music makes Memphis a no-brainer in terms of quality recreation; a cost of living 14 percent lower than the national average is just icing. Residents are able to save in some unexpected ways, with Tennessee among the lowest-taxed states in the country. For first-time homebuyers, a typical mortgage payment in the city may only eat up an average of 10 percent of monthly earnings.

8. GREENVILLE, SOUTH CAROLINA

You won’t experience any wide weather or housing fluctuations in Greenville, which has some of the most consistent numbers for both. An afternoon car ride will get you to major hubs like Atlanta or Myrtle Beach, but you might be inclined to stay put: The city is famous for its food, museums, downtown district, and strong job market.

9. COLORADO SPRINGS, COLORADO

In addition to modest housing costs, Colorado Springs cuts health care costs by harboring some of the country’s fittest residents. Outdoor activities and pet-friendly areas keep people moving, and the city is a quick commute to ski towns that you can enjoy on weekends.

10. SAN ANTONIO, TEXAS

San Antonio tends to attract devotees who wear their citizenship proudly. That’s because the city’s economic appeal is balanced by a thriving arts community and a lot of beautiful scenery. For the health-conscious, the city’s medical infrastructure is so strong that it can attract out-of-area patients. And despite being the seventh-largest city in the country, San Antonio’s housing prices are often just a tenth of the cost of other major hubs.

11. LAS VEGAS, NEVADA

Providing you can tolerate both the heat and the temptation to gamble your disposable income away, Las Vegas ranks as a surprisingly affordable destination. Groceries, utilities, and transportation are well below the national averages. Plus, the state of Nevada has no sales tax. Coupled with some of the best entertainment in the country, Vegas might be the most fun and most affordable hometown on the map.

Whether you’re relocating to a new state or a new block, Allstate.com has the tools and resources you need to make your move a cinch.

Banner image courtesy of iStock.

Sharing trivia with friends has never been easier in our age of social media, but there’s still something charming about sending something through the mail. Amazing Animal Facts—previously a book and now a box of cards—allows you to send info-packed notes to your friends and family. The postcards feature animal-related facts along with illustrations by Sweden-based artist Maja Säfström.

The box set, which includes 50 cards, has five categories to choose from: sea, forest, field, jungle, and sky. Each card is dedicated to a different animal and comes with one to five different facts about the species. (For example, did you know that blue whales have belly buttons?) As a fun twist, all the cards are in black and white, so you can customize and color them to your liking. Once you finish coloring and adding a personal note, you can apply a stamp and pop it in the mail.

You can grab one of these sets on Amazon for $20.

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Mad Max: Fury Road is going down as an instant classic thanks to its amazing special effects, stunt work, talented acting, of course, its many Oscars. But for all its praise, fans haven’t even seen the movie as it was intended; director George Miller said he originally wanted the movie to be in black and white. Now the monochromatic edition, Black & Chrome is coming to certain theaters November 1, but you don’t even have to wait that long—you can watch right now on Amazon.

Miller explained his reasoning for the monochrome film in a Q&A with filmmaker Edgar Wright:

One thing I’ve noticed is that the default position for everyone is to de-saturate post-apocalyptic movies. There’s only two ways to go, make them black and white—the best version of this movie is black and white, but people reserve that for art movies now. The other version is to really go all-out on the color. The usual teal and orange thing? That’s all the colors we had to work with. The desert’s orange and the sky is teal, and we either could de-saturate it, or crank it up, to differentiate the movie. Plus, it can get really tiring watching this dull, de-saturated color, unless you go all the way out and make it black and white.

Previously, a fan took up the task of creating a completely de-saturated version of the film, with minimal sound effects and no dialogue. The video has since been taken down, but you can now stream the official version or buy the Mad Max High Octane Collection on either DVD or Blu-ray on December 6.

If you can’t quite picture the full black and chrome treatment, watch this video that shows the versions side by side.

[h/t Konbini]

Fans of Stephen King’s The Dark Tower series are in for a creepy treat this holiday season: The horror writer has created a real-life version of the fictional children’s book, Charlie the Choo-Choo. The disturbing picture book is available for pre-order on Amazon and is slated to be released on November 22, as io9 reports.

If you need a quick refresher, Charlie the Choo-Choo made an appearance in the third book of the series, The Waste Lands. Jake Chambers purchases the book, along with Riddle-De-Dum! Brain-Twisters and Puzzles for Everyone!, at the bookstore The Manhattan Restaurant of the Mind.

Now, King has decided to transport the book from The Dark Tower universe and bring it into the real world. The work will still keep its original author, Beryl Evans, although King jokingly added a blurb: “If I were ever to write a children’s book, it would be just like this!” As io9 points out, the author is also a character in his own story, so hypothetically he could have endorsed the book fictionally as well.

While the synopsis of the book makes it sound like a cheery tale—”Engineer Bob has a secret: His train engine, Charlie the Choo-Choo, is alive … and also his best friend”—the unsettling illustrations by Ned Dameron tell a different story.

[h/t io9]

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