Month: February 2017

The red car is fast, the blue one is faster, and green is the fastest. As you may recall from grammar class, these three words make up the positive, comparative, and superlative forms of the word fast. But there is a handful of words in English so common that we’ve forgotten they were formed using these -er and -est suffixes. Like upper, which literally means “more up” (up plus -er). But this word has become so familiar that we no longer think of it as the comparative of up. Here are 15 other such words whose origins are hiding right under your nose.

1. LATTER

Etymologically speaking, latter just means “more late.” It comes from the Old English lætra (slower), the comparative form of læt, (slow) and source of late. Lætra also carried the sense of our modern later, but the latter word didn’t actually emerge until the 1500s.

2. LAST

And if you’re “most late”? You’re last. Last is the superlative form of læt. Way back, last was latost, and was worn down over the years to last.

3. LEAST

Last isn’t always least, as they say, but both words are superlatives. Least—lǽsest in Old English and meaning smallest—is the superlative of lǽs, itself a comparative meaning smaller.

4. LESSER

The Old English lǽs gives us less. But if we’re sticklers, lesser is technically a double comparative: “more smaller.” Legendary lexicographer Samuel Johnson couldn’t care less about lesser, calling it “a barbarous corruption of less, formed by the vulgar from the habit of terminating comparatives in -er.”

5. INNER

Inner may just make you facepalm: It’s “more in.” The Old English comparative of in (or inne) was innera; the superlative was innemost, now inmost. With use and time, inner became its own positive form, now taking inmost and innermost as its comparative and superlative forms, respectively.

Now, most comparative forms are followed by than, as in “the green car is faster than the blue one.” Curiously, inner stopped doing this in Middle English. For instance, we don’t say “the kitchen is inner than the foyer.”

6. NEAR

The end is nigh: we usually explain that crusty-sounding nigh as near. But near already means “more nigh”: In Old English, near was the comparative of nēah, now nigh. Over the centuries, near went off on its own and is now no longer felt as a comparative, just like inner. And so near is the modern nigh after all.

7. NEXT

As for the superlative of nēah? That would be nēahst, “most nigh,” which we now call next. But why the x? In Old English, the h in nēahst would have sounded something like the ch in Scottish loch. Follow that guttural consonant with an s and you eventually get the x sound.

8. UTTER

Historically, utter is just outer, or “more out.” Old English had the word út, meaning “out.” Its comparative was úterra. By the early 1400s, utter had shifted to its modern meaning of absolute. Also emerging by this time was the verb utter, literally “to put out (goods, money, statements),” in part influenced by the adjective utter.

9. OUTER

When utter moved on and lost its association with út/out, it left a gap in the language. Outer, meaning “more out” and formed by analogy with inner, naturally filled it. But like inner, outer has become its own positive form, taking outmost and outermost as its comparative and superlative. The original superlative of út/out would have been utmost, which moved on to mean extreme.

10. FURTHER

At this point you may be wondering, is further …“more furth”? Yes, it’s just that we’d recognize furth as forth today. This makes further “more forth” or “more fore.” And all that business about reserving farther for physical distances and further for abstract ones? Cockamamie. Farther began as a variant of further—and both of them ousted the normal comparative of far, which was simply farrer. Oh, could English go any farther, er, further to make things complicated?

11. FIRST

If further corresponds to “more fore,” then what about “most fore”? That would be first, the “fore-est,” if we gloss over some vowel changes that happened in English long, long ago. It’s a sensible construction: That which comes before everything else is indeed first. Today, “fore-est” answers to foremost.

12. AFTER

Everything else is after what comes first. Is after “more aft,” then? Not quite. It’s more like “more off” in the sense of “farther behind” or “more away.” The af- in after corresponds to off (as well as of), the -ter to an ancient comparative suffix. But we’d have to travel back thousands of years before we’d find any speaker would register after as a comparative.

13. RATHER

It’s rare now, but English once had the adjective rathe, meaning quick or eager. (We might think of being rathe as the opposite of being loath.) So, if you are “more rathe”? You’re rather. If you’d rather watch paint dry than finish this article, you’d “more readily” do so. Or, rather, you’re the type who finds this arcane trivia edifying. This adverbial rather has the sense of “more properly”; you more truly do something if you carry it out willingly. And if you have your druthers, or preference, you have playfully contracted I would rather.

14. ELDER

Literally speaking, your elder is just someone older than you—but you better not say that your grandparents. Elder and older are both comparatives of the Old English (e)aldOlder did not show respect for its elder, supplanting it as the common comparative around the 1500s. The Old English ald, meanwhile, hangs on in the auld of “Auld Lang Syne” (for Old Times’ Sake) and alderman.

15. ERSTWHILE

Finally, erstwhile is a snazzy word for former, often seen in the expression erstwhile enemies. But what is the erst in erstwhile, anyway? Old English had ǽr (soon, before), which you’ll recognize as ere from your Shakespeare. Its superlative was ǽrest, or “most ere,” hence erst.

The Founding Fathers built the groundwork for America, but they were much more than military strategists and document writers. Like modern Americans, the Founding Fathers knew how to enjoy life, and spent their leisure time (and in some cases, work time) grabbing a pint at the tavern, scarfing down desserts, and exploring the great outdoors. To celebrate these iconic Americans, we’ve compiled 12 favorite haunts of the Founding Fathers that you can still visit today.

1. GREEN DRAGON TAVERN // BOSTON

The Green Dragon Tavern was known for its drinks, but it was also an important meeting spot where the Founding Fathers made important decisions about this country—like to throw the Boston Tea Party (and the equally important decision to save their rum and toss the tea!), and the resolutions that built our Federal Constitution. It’s also often claimed that this is where, in 1775, British plans for the invasion of Lexington and Concord were overheard and Paul Revere was dispatched for his famous ride to warn the colonists. (According to a letter from Revere, they only met at The Green Dragon until November 1774, when they discovered that they had a traitor in their midst and moved to a more secure location.) The Green Dragon is no longer in its original location, but its historic significance as the “Headquarters of the Revolution” remains strong—just like its rum punch.

2. BELL IN HAND // BOSTON

Back in the day, big names like Daniel Webster and Paul Revere frequented Bell in Hand for its good booze and great company. Opened by the retired town crier in 1795, it was known as the primary alehouse in Boston (its proprietor refused to sell harder liquors). Today, Bell in Hand (which moved to its present-day location in 1844) is more about dancing and drinking than defending our country’s freedom. But hey, even the Founding Fathers had to let loose sometimes, right?

3. ADAMS NATIONAL HISTORICAL PARK // QUINCY, MASSACHUSETTS

John Adams’s former residence—his “sweet little farm”—has been turned into a historic museum center that tells the story of the Adams family, from its presidents and first ladies to its writers, and everyone in between. And though you can’t grab a drink at the site, if you’d like to drink like the second president, start your morning with a tankard of hard cider. Adams was known to down hard cider for breakfast every day, starting from when he was a 15-year-old student at Harvard through his presidency and retirement.

4. MOUNT VERNON INN RESTAURANT // MOUNT VERNON, VIRGINIA

George Washington may have traveled all over this country, but his favorite place of all was home sweet Mount Vernon. Today, you can dine like George Washington just steps from his estate at the Mount Vernon Inn Restaurant, which serves some of the legendary president’s favorite dishes like freshly caught fish and apple pie (though they don’t have his beloved Madeira wine). The Mount Vernon Inn does not require admission tickets like the GW Estate and is a great way to taste some Founding Father flavors.

5. BAR ORDINARY // NEW HAVEN, CONNECTICUT

Before leading the army to Cambridge in 1775, George Washington spent the night at New Haven’s Beers Tavern, and gathered 100 Yale students (including the fife-playing Noah Webster—he of dictionary-creation fame) in front of the bar the next morning to march with him out of the town. Fast forward more than 240 years, and you can still dine and imbibe at this iconic spot—now called Bar Ordinary—which has also seen visitors like presidents Abraham Lincoln and William Howard Taft.

6. PISCATAQUA RIVER // KITTERY, MAINE

While visiting the New England area in the late 1700s, George Washington made a pit stop for cod fishing in the Piscataqua River right off the shores of Kittery, Maine. Washington didn’t have much luck on his trip—he reported only catching two—but today, you can give it a try to see how your fishing skills compare to our nation’s first president.

7. WHITE HORSE TAVERN // NEWPORT, RHODE ISLAND

Rumor has it George Washington celebrated Rhode Island’s ratification of the U.S. Constitution in 1790 at—among many popular places—the White Horse Tavern in Newport. Today, you can raise a glass at the White Horse just like Washington, but don’t dress like you’re headed to a pub—this iconic spot requires country club or business casual attire.

8. LAKE CHAMPLAIN // LAKE CHAMPLAIN VALLEY, VERMONT

James Madison and Thomas Jefferson crossed Lake Champlain from New York to explore Vermont—which had just become the 14th state—in early 1791, but the two Virginians left mostly unimpressed by the area as a whole, saying that it is “much larger but less pleasant water than L. George.” But Jefferson did appear to be enjoy the fish, mentioning the 20-pound catfish, sturgeon, and salmon, and he was also pleased by how few mosquitos were in the area.

9. HAMILTON PARK // WEEHAWKEN, NEW JERSEY

On July 11, 1804, vice president Aaron Burr shot and mortally wounded Alexander Hamilton in America’s most famous duel. While you may not (read: should not) reenact the Burr/Hamilton duel scene, you can walk the grounds where this historic event took place at the Hamilton Park in Weehawken, New Jersey while reciting Hamilton lyrics if your head. Side note: Don’t forget your camera, because Hamilton Park also has some of the best NYC skyline views!

10. CITY TAVERN // PHILADELPHIA

We can thank Philadelphia’s historic City Tavern for supplying the food and spirits needed to make this country what it is today. The Founding Fathers spent many late nights here while preparing the Declaration of Independence and The Constitution—according to George Washington, on September 17, 1787, after the Constitution was signed and ready to be sent to the states for ratification, “The members adjourned to the City Tavern, dined together, and took a cordial leave of each other.” While today’s clientele may have fewer powdered wigs and breeches, you can still dine and drink circa the 18th century at this fully operational, completely reconstructed tavern.

11. GADSBY’S TAVERN // ALEXANDRIA, VIRGINIA

With guests like John Adams, Alexander Hamilton, and Virginia native George Washington, the Gadsby’s Tavern made quite a name for itself among the country’s most elite. Thomas Jefferson was even honored with a banquet there in 1801, the year he became president. And though you may not have an inaugural fete thrown in your honor, you can dine on “George Washington’s Favorite” (a grilled duck breast with scalloped potatoes and a port wine orange glaze) or “Gentleman’s Pye” (a lamb and beef red wine stew in a pastry crust) in this National Historical Landmark’s Colonial-style dining rooms.

12. FRAUNCES TAVERN // NEW YORK CITY

Lower Manhattan’s Fraunces Tavern is possibly the most monumental haunt of them all—it served as the location of General George Washington’s farewell dinner to the officers of his Continental Army after the last British soldiers left America in 1783. Today, you can visit the Fraunces Tavern Museum’s Long Room—the site of Washington’s speech—and grab a pint to (figuratively) pour one out for the most famous of the founding fathers, and all the early Americans who helped make the revolution a success.

In this riddle from TED-Ed, you’re in a sticky situation. You’re stranded in a rainforest and have accidentally eaten a poisonous mushroom. To survive the poison, you need to lick a very particular frog. But which frog is it?

You can watch the video below for more details, or read this description. The problem is simple: You are poisoned and you know that a particular species of frog produces the antidote, which will cure you if you lick it. But to make things more complex, you know that only female frogs of the species have the antidote—males do not. In this frog species, males and females look identical but males have a distinctive croak. (Males and females also occur in identical proportion in this species.) In one direction, you see a single frog. In another, a group of two frogs sitting together.

From the direction of the two frogs, you hear that distinctive “male frog” croak. Uh-oh! One of those two is definitely male.

As the poison sets in, you have to make a logical decision. You need to find a female frog with the antidote. Are your odds better going toward the group of two (one of which is definitely male), or toward the single unknown frog? And what are those odds, anyway?

Note that in this riddle you are not guaranteed to survive. You’re just trying to take your best shot.

So which to choose, and why?

Watch the video below for a discussion of the problem and how the math stacks up behind one of the choices.

For more resources, consult this TED-Ed page. Once you’ve solved it (or if you’ve given up), you might also be interested in this related math problem.

The compact disc player turns 35 this year. Sony’s first CD player was released on October 1, 1982. At the time of its release, the CD was an enormous step forward in home recording technology—and nerds were excited.

In late 1982, an Australian TV show called Towards 2000 dedicated a lengthy segment to the arrival of the CD, “the ultimate in recorded sound.” In the segment, presenters ran through various significant sound-recording milestones, showing off all sorts of needles, horns, hand-cranks, and so on. The “microgroove” LP was effectively the height of recording technology until 1982.

Nearly three minutes into the TV segment below, we see our first compact disc. Mind blowing! The presenters explain that there is no needle involved—it’s frickin’ lasers.

We get a tour of CD technology, including early players with big clicky buttons. My favorite part of this trip down memory lane comes near the end of the segment, when presenters suggest that one day, CD players might even find their way into cars!

Tune in, and be reminded what mind-blowing tech looked like 35 years ago:

While transparent-beverage-loving drinkers of every age could enjoy sucking down Crystal Pepsi, Tab Clear, Clearly Canadian, or New York Seltzer in the 1990s, the see-through beverage of choice for harder drinkers was also clear: Zima.

Introduced by Coors in 1993, the sorta-citrusy malt beverage launched with much fanfare; the company spent a massive $180 million to market Zima, promising consumers that it was “zomething different.” No one zeemed to care.

By the time Coors introduced Zima Gold in 1995, the beverage had already become more of a punch line in America—though it would take another 13 years for it to be officially discontinued in the country. “We decided to do Zima Gold, which was a huge disaster,” Pete Coors, MillerCoors’s vice chairman of the board of directors, told Ad Age in 2012. “And then we decided to take the nice fluted bottle and make it into a generic bottle. We killed the brand, frankly.”

But following on the heels of Crystal Pepsi’s 2016 relaunch, MillerCoors thinks Zima is ready to make a comeback. Though few details have yet been revealed, company spokesman Marty Maloney recently confirmed that the beer alternative will be returning to store shelves in the near future, stating that, “If you’re one of the zillion fans who have missed Zima, the answer should be clear.” Zign us up!

[h/t: Ad Age]

In addition to bringing about groundbreaking technological advancements and hot fashion trends, World War I also produced some deliciously sappy love letters. Now, as Hyperallergic reports, Europeana is asking for help adding some of them to their digital archive. The online cultural heritage platform is hosting a “Love Letter Run,” calling on the public to transcribe romantic correspondences dating back to the First World War.

The project is part of Europeana’s World War I transcription initiative running through the end of the war’s centennial in 2018. The site’s announcement reads:

“As the First World War raged on, so did the hearts of the husbands, wives, and lovers of Europe[…]In the Love Letter Run, we present you stories of romance and betrayal, of lust and longing, heartbreak and new beginnings – all the makings of your favourite melodrama, but from genuine handwritten sources of real, lived experiences.”

Documents in English, French, German, Dutch, Croatian, Slovenian, and Greek are waiting to be transcribed. In the collection, readers will find poems, postcards, and even an illustrated book of love songs that belonged to a French soldier. Check out some highlights from Europeana’s archive below:

[h/t Hyperallergic]

All images courtesy of Europeana.

Augustus Sherman spent more than two decades photographing the immigrants he saw every day during his duties as a registry clerk at Ellis Island. 

Given a standard 52-card deck, how many possible arrangements of the cards within it are there? Another way to ask this is: If you shuffle a deck of cards, what are the possible number of shuffled permutations?

The answer is, predictably, a whole lot. But the astounding fact is that if you shuffle a deck of cards right now, it’s likely that the order your deck is in has never occurred before in human history.

In fact, the number of deck combinations is so great that if a new deck arrangement were written out every second starting at the Big Bang (which, of course, couldn’t have happened, because cards didn’t exist…but still…), we would still be coming up with new deck arrangements today, and for millions of years in the future. Because playing cards in their current form have “only” existed for centuries, and the possibility space is so enormous, a unique shuffled order is extremely likely.

Check out this TED-Ed video for an explanation of why this is the case, and the specifics of the math involved.

Check out this TED-Ed page for more resources. I particularly enjoyed the bit under “Dig Deeper” discussing the anagram possibilities of the Harry Potter phrase “Tom Marvolo Riddle.”