Month: January 2017

If the universe is expanding, then what does it expand into?

Richard Muller:

The universe doesn’t have to be expanding into anything in order to expand. I know that sounds ridiculous, so let me give you a different example that is easier to understand. 

Imagine that you have a line that goes on forever. On that line, you have a mark every inch. There are an infinite number of inches. Now move each marker so that they are separated by two inches. The whole pattern has expanded. It still goes to infinity, but the markers are further apart. The pattern has expanded, but the length is still infinite. 

Now a new example: Suppose you have a long piece of rubber, going all the way to infinity. (That piece of rubber represents the universe.) The rubber has marks on it every inch. Now stretch the rubber, until the markers are two inches apart. It still goes to infinity—but it has expanded.

Physicists think of “space” not as emptiness, but similar to a piece of rubber. (But they don’t call it rubber; they call it the “vacuum.” “Particles,” in physics, are just vibrations of the vacuum.) The vacuum can expand, just like the piece of rubber. But because it goes all the way to infinity, it doesn’t need more space. A clever way to say it is that “there’s lots of room at infinity”. (That’s clever, but it doesn’t really explain anything.)

Now here is something new that might confuse you, or might help. In the standard physics theory, the galaxies are all getting farther apart; that is the expansion of the universe. Yet in the way the theory describes it (I mean in General Relativity Theory), none of the galaxies are actually moving. All that is happening is that the amount of space (vacuum) in between them is increasing.

No, you will not learn this in school, or even in college (unless you have an extraordinary professor). It is usually taught in graduate school, when you are earning a Ph.D. degree. At that point the language you will encounter is this: “In the Big Bang Theory, all galaxies have fixed coordinates. (That means they are not moving.) The ‘expansion’ is described by the ‘metric tensor,’ which describes the distances between those fixed coordinates. In the Big Bang Theory, it is the metric tensor which is changing; that represents the expansion of the universe, even though the galaxies aren’t moving. The recent discovery of accelerated expansion means that the rate of expansion is increasing.”

Maybe you’ve read about the curvature of space. Put a black hole between two unmoving objects, and the distance between them will suddenly increase—even though they haven’t moved. So “distance” is not as simple as people thought. It was Einstein who came up with the remarkable idea that “space” (that is, vacuum) is flexible; it can curve and stretch.

I expect you will find this to be very confusing. That’s not a bad sign; it is a good one. When you learn new things that are completely different than you ever imagined, then “confusion” is the first step.

This post originally appeared on Quora. Click here to view.

Fred Korematsu, the Japanese-American man famous for resisting internment during World War II, would have turned 98 years old today. Born on January 30, 1919 in Oakland, California, Korematsu’s case against the legality of internment was overruled by the Supreme Court in 1944, but his legacy as a hero who stood up for civil liberties during a particularly dark time in world history lives on. Today, Google is paying tribute to the activist in the form of their daily doodle.

Google often chooses to highlight underappreciated figures from history, but today’s selection feels especially poignant. As Mashable points out, the doodle could be a nod to Donald Trump’s recent immigration ban, which some have compared to Executive Order 9066, which was signed by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in 1942.

Though Korematsu didn’t win his initial case, the U.S. government eventually admitted their fault and began distributing reparations to the affected families in 1988. According to the Civil Liberties Act of that year, the incarceration of Japanese-Americans had been based on “race prejudice, war hysteria, and a failure of political leadership” rather than any legitimate security concerns.

In 2004 (the year before his death), Korematsu published an op-ed in the San Francisco Chronicle comparing the growing prejudices toward Arab Americans to what he had experienced during World War II. He wrote:

“Fears and prejudices directed against minority communities are too easy to evoke and exaggerate, often to serve the political agendas of those who promote those fears. I know what it is like to be at the other end of such scapegoating and how difficult it is to clear one’s name after unjustified suspicions are endorsed as fact by the government. If someone is a spy or terrorist they should be prosecuted for their actions. But no one should ever be locked away simply because they share the same race, ethnicity, or religion as a spy or terrorist. If that principle was not learned from the internment of Japanese Americans, then these are very dangerous times for our democracy.”

[h/t Mashable]

Standing stones, stone circles, and megaliths have been discovered across the world, but scientists and historians continue to debate their purpose, construction, and meaning. Many theories have been put forward for these creations, from astronomical sites to places of ritual and worship. But perhaps even more puzzling than the meaning of their creation is how they were built with enormously heavy stones long before the creation of the wheel, let alone other modern technology. Below are seven of the world’s most mysterious stones.

1. CARNAC // MEGALITHIC STANDING STONES IN FRANCE

Around the small village of Carnac in Brittany, France, thousands of ancient menhirs (single upright monoliths) and other types of megaliths stand arranged in rows. The stones have been dated to the Middle Neolithic period (around 3000 BCE) but an exact date has yet to be proposed. There are over 3000 of them, measuring as much as 20 feet high and stretching on for a total of more than four miles. The site includes groupings of megaliths, burial mounds, and enclosures, representing an extraordinary feat of construction for Neolithic peoples. The arrangements are long thought to have served some magical or religious purpose but no one is quite sure what (one popular legend has it that when the Roman army was marching on Brittany the wizard Merlin appeared and turned them to stone). Historians studying the site have proposed that the lines of stones in fact delineate a sacred space, perhaps leading people toward an area of worship.

2. COSTA RICA // MYSTERIOUS STONE BALLS

In the 1930s, employees of the United Fruit Company were clearing the jungle of Diquis Delta in Costa Rica when they discovered a series of perfectly spherical carved stones, some just a few inches across, others up to 6 feet wide. Hundreds of the mysterious spheres have since been identified across the region, and many have been adopted as decorations for official buildings.

The exact origin and purpose of the stones is debated by archaeologists. Some excavation around the stones still in their original position hs revealed pre-Columbian pottery, linking their existence to ancient pre-conquest cultures, but so many have been moved from their original sites that analysis of their origin and pin-pointing their date of creation has become difficult. Some of the stones were discovered in seemingly astronomically significant alignments, leading some archaeologists to propose that they may have been used for astronomy or navigation.

What we know for sure is that the stones are made of hard igneous (solidified from lava or magma) rock such as granodiorite, and were shaped by humans rather than nature. Unfortunately, many of the balls have been damaged or moved by trophy hunters and so today very few remain in their original position—two have even been transported to the U.S., one at museum of the National Geographic Society in Washington, D.C. and the other at a courtyard near Harvard’s Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnography in Cambridge, Massachusetts.

3. STONEHENGE // NEOLITHIC STONE CIRCLE

Stonehenge in Salisbury, England, is one of the most iconic megalithic sites in the world. The circle of stones was built starting around 3000 years ago by Neolithic peoples, and the blue stones that make up the ancient monument have been traced to quarries in Pembrokeshire, Wales, hundreds of miles from where the circle now stands. Historians have theorized that the stones were transported the long distance on rafts down rivers and then pulled along on wooden sleighs using rollers, a process that must have involved months of hard work. The stone circle is just part of a series of ancient structures across the landscape of Salisbury Plain, with earthworks, ditches, and Bronze Age burial barrows. The site has long been a sacred space and even today pagans gather there to celebrate on the winter and summer solstices.

4. MONGOLIA & SIBERIA // DEER STONES

The deer stones are a series of over 1200 ancient standing stones scattered across Mongolia and Siberia, given their name because many of them include elaborate carvings of flying deer. The stones range in height from about 3 to 13 feet and are often grouped together, sometimes associated with ancient burial sites. Scientists believe they were erected over 3000 years ago by Bronze Age nomads. The carvings include not just deer but elk, people, and representations believed to be the sun and moon. The intricate carvings would have taken a lot of skill and so historians think the stones may have been dedicated to great warriors or chiefs, but their exact purpose can only be guessed at.

5. AVEBURY // THE WORLD’S LARGEST STONE CIRCLE

The world’s largest prehistoric stone circle is found in the quaint English village of Avebury, not far from Stonehenge. The circle originally contained some 100 stones and encircled two smaller stone rings. The stones are thought to form part of a wider ritual landscape, which was built and altered from about 2850 to 2200 BCE; archaeologists think that the circles, henges, and avenues of stones formed part of a public space for religious ceremonies, but their exact use or the nature of these ceremonies remain a mystery. In the 1930s, an excavation by archaeologist Alexander Keiller revealed a grisly secret when a skeleton was discovered crushed underneath one of the stones. The body did not belong to one of the Neolithic builders, but rather a man from the fourteenth century who was crushed to death when trying to move the pagan stones.

6. SOUTH KOREA // GOCHANG DOLMEN SITE

A huge prehistoric burial site in South Korea spread across the areas of Gochang, Hwasun, and Ganghwa contains hundreds of ancient dolmens—tombs built from large stone slabs. These Neolithic and early Bronze Age structures are made from two or more stones, topped with a large capstone, forming a marker for a burial site. The sheer number of dolmens is the most surprising aspect of this World Heritage Site, with thousands dotted across the Korean landscape—the highest concentration of dolmens in the world.

No matter where in the world you purchase a 7-Eleven Slurpee—from Missouri to Mexico—it will taste exactly the same. To figure out how the sweet drink gets its uniform flavor, the team behind Eater’s Gut Check series took a good look at the Slurpee machine (first invented in 1959 by Dairy Queen franchisee Omar Knedlik) to explain how, exactly, the appliance ensures that each frozen treat is served at the same temperature, and contains identical levels of carbonation and sweetness.

[h/t Eater]

When asked to name a famous architect, you might mention Frank Gehry, Frank Lloyd Wright, or Zaha Hadid. But things get trickier once you narrow yourself down to black professionals. Even today, only two percent of America’s licensed architects are black. The New York Coalition of Black Architects and New York Chapter of the National Organization of Minority Architects are looking to bring visibility to this underrepresented group with their new exhibit “Say It Loud: Distinguished Black Designers of NYCOBA | NOMA.”

As Curbed New York reports, the show is currently running at the Center for Architecture in New York City. Twenty black architects, all members of NYCOBA | NOMA, are represented. Visitors can see the works of designers such as Roberta Washington, Yolande Daniels, and Mark Gardner accompanied by quotes and video interviews from the designers.

A timeline of black designers in New York provides historical context, while projects selected from young architects pivot the exhibit toward the future. Award-winning architecture students and local high school students have their work displayed alongside the established professionals. The show opened on January 26 and will close on April 1. On Monday, February 27, the Center for Architecture is hosting a companion discussion on diversity in the field.

[h/t Curbed New York]

Cold, dark mornings and dreary winter weather can make getting out of bed difficult for even the best early birds. But you don’t have to go into hibernation until April and wear out your snooze button in the meantime. Whether you prefer a quick jolt of energy to get yourself going in the a.m. or feel better easing into your morning, the following tips from trainers around the country will help you feel ready to go and refreshed in seconds.

1. PROGRAM INSPIRATION.

If your phone doubles as your alarm clock, type a motivational phrase as a note in your alarm, suggests Sherica Holmon, an instructor at Flywheel in New York City. Try a personal mantra or a line from an athletic brand ad or song that fires you up. “Having the message attached to your alarm will force you to look at this message before you press that snooze button!” says Holmon.

Take advantage of your phone further by jotting down a quick to-do list or a couple goals you want to accomplish that day in your notes app as soon as you wake up, recommends Meghan Takacs, a personal trainer and running coach with the fitness app Aaptiv. Taking a minute to think about your priorities and to write them down will likely energize you to get up, she says.

2. HAVE SOME H20 BEFORE YOU GET OUT OF BED.

If your alarm isn’t doing the trick and you’re still lying in bed feeling groggy, gulping a glass of water can help you get going. “Winters are tough, but incorporating some healthy habits into your morning is a great way to jump-start your day,” says Christi Marraccini, a head coach at Tone House in New York City. Marraccini knows a thing or two about supercharging your mornings: She teaches a class at 5 a.m. “A simple thing to do is keep a glass of water by your bed and drink it before you even get up. It helps to rehydrate the body, fire up your metabolism, and increase alertness.”

3. TAKE A DEEP BREATH.

Giving yourself a moment to breathe and reflect can help you start your morning on a relaxed, pleasant note. “I’m a big believer in breathing practices,” says Elizabeth Brewer, a fitness and yoga instructor in Tucson. “I take a moment, pause, and smile.” She suggests centering yourself by sitting with one hand cupped in the other and repeating a mantra in your mind. Her favorite: thinking “present moment” as she inhales and “joyful moment” on the exhale.

4. GIVE YOUR BODY A LITTLE LOVE.

Taking a few seconds to stretch while you’re still lying down can make leaving your warm bed seem a little less brutal. Takacs recommends hugging your knees to your chest while you lie face-up. “It’ll stretch out your spine and lower back, which will help wake up your whole body,” she says. Then flip over to child’s pose, advises Mike Donavanik, C.S.C.S., a personal trainer in Los Angeles and creator of the Extreme Burn workout series. Here’s how: Get on all fours, then lower your butt to your ankles, reaching your arms flat overhead and letting your forehead sink into the mattress. “It just feels so good on everything, and you literally don’t have to leave bed,” he says. “Just hold it for a minute or two, then get out of bed immediately after.”

5. WATCH A VIDEO.

Maybe save the clips of political news or press conferences for later (they might make you roll over and bury your face in a pillow). But checking out a new Under Armour commercial or clip from the CrossFit games or video of athletes crossing an Ironman finish line? Yeah, those should get you going, says Holmon: “Whenever I see a video of someone working out, I can’t wait to get a workout in myself.”

6. DROP AND GIVE YOURSELF 20.

The thought of doing a bodyweight exercise in your bedroom might not seem all that appealing while you’re still lying down—but doing so is guaranteed to wake you up. Donavanik loves to hop out of bed and bust out some push-ups. It fires up the muscles in your arms, shoulders, and core and gets your blood flowing in no time.

7. GIVE YOURSELF SOMETHING TO LOOK FORWARD TO.

Try to set a quick morning ritual that you love, suggests Marraccini—like taking 10 minutes to sit and sip coffee, read a chapter from a book, or meditate with an app like Headspace. Make it something that really appeals to you so the thought of doing it is enticing enough to prevent you from hitting the snooze button (again).

All images courtesy of iStock.